Domestic Household Labor

Domestic Household Labor The Unequal Division of Domestic Labor: Why It Works Well for Some Families Domestic labor is the work done in the household by the members of the family and which is not paid. Domestic labor is work, which most women do on top of their employment, and the amount of work they do after they come home from their employment varies (Aulette 164). From the late nineteenth century until 1950 the relationship between husband and wife could be described as male domination (bread winner or patriarchy) (Speakman 83). The father/husband was the undoubted head of the household; his needs, his value, and his viewpoint were always considered first (Speakman 83). Women were regarded as inferior and spent their lives as mothers, looking after their children, as wives, looking after the husband, and as house wives, looking after the home (Speakman 84). The wifes role, that is the typical pattern of behavior expected of a wife, reflected the attitudes held about women at the time. These attitudes were basically that women were naturally inferior to men and should accept their authority (Speakman 84). However, it began to change, with greater emphasis on a more shared home life. The equality between husband and wife, sharing of domestic tasks, leisure time spent together with the family and greater pride in the home began to change (Speakman 85). Still today domestic labor is stereotypical gender roles predominate, which stereotypes show that women roles predominantly to do domestic labor in the household (Speakman 83). Even though the number of hours that men and women spend on housework is starting to balance, women still do more housework than men do (Aulette 167). Generally, women still do the more â€Å"feminine† housework, while men still perform the â€Å"masculine† tasks (Speakman 84). This information led me to ask the following questions: why is housework divided unequally and are married couples okay with this arrangement? My family has a very old fashioned division of housework. My mother does all of the cooking and cleaning, and my father does all of the manual labor in our house. Both of my parents work full time, however, my father works upwards of 80 hours per week. Due to the recent downturn of the United States economy, my father has to work so many more hours than my mother for them to make ends meet. Because of the number of hours that my father works, he feels that it is my mothers responsibility to do the majority of the housework. When asked if they find their housework division acceptable, both parents agree that it is what works best for them, and they would not want it any other way. Despite the fact that housework is divided unequally, some families (mine in particular) agree that this distribution of labor is simply what works best for their household. A study by Laura Sanchez and Emily W. Kane discusses how each spouses time availability, resources, and gender ideology affect a married couples division of housework. The dominant theme in this work suggested that the inevitable response to changing labor force participation and gender attitudes for most couples should be to become more equal in family work (Sanchez 358-359). According to their study, men and women should be working towards an equal division of household work, however, this is not necessarily the case (Sanchez 359-369). Another main point in this study was that men and women both find the division of housework unfair towards women (Sanchez 379). Despite the general consensus that the division of housework is unfair, little is being done to change the division (Sanchez 379). This study demonstrates how housework is divided and also shows that even though men acknowledge the fact that women do most of the housework, the division is still unequal. Sue Speakman and Mick Marchington did a study, which also delves into the unequal division of housework. This study explores the attitude of men as â€Å"breadwinners† and their involvement in housework. They consider what being the â€Å"breadwinner† means to working men and how it translates into their wives doing the majority of the housework (Speakman 99). This study demonstrated that the nature of mens resistance to equality at home might be a particularly complex power and gender interaction in which the individual feels that his position as an authoritarian, patriarchal figure at home is under threat (Speakman 101). Men in this study showed that they acknowledge the idea that â€Å"things are changing†, however they demonstrate a resistance to the implications of that change in the construction of their own roles and responsibilities (Speakman 101). This study helps show that even though the division of household labor is shifting, many men believe that th ey will not maintain the â€Å"head of the house† position that they are used to. Many sociologists have ideas about why housework is divided unequally. The social forces of gender inequality, socialization, and rational choice are some of the main influences on the unequal division of labor. These large social forces have an impact on the way that decisions are made on the micro-level of families. In my own family, all three of these factors play a big role in the division of labor. Socialization is a process where children learn how to understand people in their society and what is expected of them (Aulette 179). Many kinds of socialization take place, and gender socialization is a major type. Boys and girls learn what is expected from their gender and how they are supposed to act (Aulette 179). Many experts believe that peer interaction is an important factor of gender socialization (Aulette 179). Girls playing house and doctor help each other learn how to be good housewives, while boys playing football and war do not (Aulette 179). In an interview with my parents, my mother discussed how throughout her entire life, she only wanted to be a homemaker. She told me, â€Å"I grew up in the time where women wanted to go out and be something, but not me. I only wanted to be a mom and spend my days taking care of my children.† This is exactly what my mother did until I entered elementary school. She was a stay at home mother and loved nearly every moment of it . She had absolutely no issues with doing the day to day housework, since my father was the one working full time. I would have thought that when my mother began working full time, my father would help with some of these daily chores however this was not the case. When my mother began working, she still was responsible for the majority of the day to day running of the house, because gender stereotypes led her to believe that it was the womans responsibility. Another set of experts, believe that housework is divided in a way that is less related to childhood socialization and more related to the rational choice of who is better suited to do what (Sanchez 360). They believe that the fact that women do most of the housework in most families is explained as a result of rational cooperative decisions made by households (Sanchez 361). By following this line of thinking, the woman is more skilled at doing housework, therefore it makes the most logical sense for her to do things like cooking and laundry. My mother and my father agree that my mother is better suited to do the housework because she is very practiced in it, and simply better at cooking and cleaning. They also agree that since my father works more than my mother does, she has more time to spend on housework. Gender inequality also plays into the division of housework in my own household. My father is seen as the head of the household, which in turn entitles him to fewer responsibilities when it comes to housework. Even though my mother works full time, my father brings in almost double the money that she does. The findings in Sue Speakmans study are demonstrated by the ideas of my father. According to Speakmans study, men believe that if they take more housework responsibilities their position of â€Å"head of the household† will be in jeopardy (101). My father feels that he is entitled to less housework, because he is the â€Å"breadwinner† of the family. By not being the â€Å"breadwinner† of the family, women should be responsible for the day to day running of the household. My family can be analyzed using the sociological theory of functionalism. Functionalism is a theoretical perspective that views society as an organized and stable system that is made up of a variety of interrelated parts or structures (Aulette 10). The family from a functionalist perspective is regarded as a system that provides functions for the society and individual members (Aulette 10). It emphasizes that a differentiation of gender roles within the family is a functional necessity (Aulette 10). My family is conservative in the family values debate, and it is apparent that my parents believe that families are a functional units in which the womans role is centered in the internal affairs of the family. The main way that my family does not fit into this perspective is by the fact that my mother is employed outside of the house. According to the functionalist perspective, men should be the sole monetary providers of the household (Aulette 10). Despite this fact, the large differenc e in my parents incomes and hours worked per week reduce this argument to a minimal point. Overall, my parents have made the unequal division of household labor work for them. Despite many peoples opinions, they are both happy with the arrangement. They were placed into this arrangement by the social forces that dictated gender differences. The history of my parents gender differences is far too extensive for my family to even question. They were both raised to perform their gender-roles through childhood socialization, and see no need to change these roles. My father has always been good at fixing things, and my mother has always been good at the day to day running of the house. Both of my parents agree that the housework is unequally distributed to my mother, but neither of them question this distribution. Due to the recent downturn of the United States economy, my father has to work many more hours per week than my mother for them to make ends meet. With my father working so much, my mother believes that it is only fair that she puts in her share of work by doing the cl eaning and cooking. My mother summed up her feelings on their situation by asking, â€Å"If our arrangement works so well for us, why should I try to change it?† Works Cited Aulette, Judy R. Housework. Changing American Families. Boston: Pearson Education, Inc, 2007. 163-189. Aulette, Judy R. How to Study Families in the Twenty-First Century. Changing American Families. Boston: Pearson Education, Inc, 2007. 1-23. Clements, David. Personal interview. 20 Mar. 2008. Clements, Nancy. Personal interview. 20 Mar. 2008. Sanchez, Laura, and Emily W. Kane. Womens and Mens Constructions of Perceptions of Housework Fairness. Journal of Family Issues 17 (1996): 358-387. Sage Journals Online. Grand Valley State University, Grand Rapids. 28 Mar. 2008 . Speakman, Sue, and Mick Marchington. Ambivalent Patriarchs: Shiftworkers, Breadwinners and Housework. Work Employment Society 13 (1999): 83-105. Sage Journals Online. Grand Valley State University, Grand Rapids. 28 Mar. 2008 .

Gender Roles in North and South

Tierney Deggelman Morrissey Engl 209 October 1, 2012 Gender Roles in North and South It is no surprise that the novel North and South is one that frequently employs the literary style of placing two entities in juxtaposition as the very title coincides with the idea of comparison. Similarly, the chapter headings often mirror this literary style: â€Å"Masters and Men,† â€Å"Likes and Dislikes,† â€Å"Roses and Thorns†. The most significant of these comparisons is masculinity and femininity.Through the development of the novels female heroine Margaret Hale and through John Thornton’s perspectives of her, Emily Gaskell is in essence taking a stand against gender stereotypes and highlighting the underestimated value of female empowerment in Victorian society. Throughout the novel Margaret Hale proves herself to be a strong, outspoken, capable and irrepressible spirit. These descriptions of Margaret however were more likely to be attributed to men in this tim e, as they were viewed as the superior gender. Gaskell describes Margaret as â€Å"full of a soft feminine defiance, always giving strangers the impression of haughtinessâ€Å" (58).In attempts to draw attention to the fact that Margaret is out of the ordinary with a personality unlike most women of her time, Gaskell incorporates Mr. Thornton’s first impressions of her as well. â€Å"He almost said to himself he did not like her, before their conversation ended; he tried so to compensate himself for the mortified feeling, that while he looked upon her with an admiration he could not repress† (59). This passage is significant because it shows the discontent Thornton feels due to Margaret’s reluctance to conform to stereotypes of femininity.However, even with feelings of discontent, Thornton looks at her with admiration showing he cannot help but be captivated with her strong-minded manner. Perhaps this is Gaskell’s way of showing us that if breaking gend er stereotypes can be admired by a high class powerful man such as Thornton, then why cant it be admired by society as a whole? Another instance where Margaret demonstrates her unusual strength is in regards to her mother’s illness. When she finds out her mother is dying she decides to keep it from her father as she says, â€Å"He will not bear it as I can† (119).The instant she convinces the doctor to reveal the severity of her mothers illness marks the moment she takes on the role of authoritative figure in her family. The authoritative position in a family would again usually belong to a man but Margaret claims her father could not handle it and that she will have to step forward. Margaret’s strength through her mothers illness, taking power over her father is yet another characteristic of hers that’s advocates female empowerment. This is reinstated in the actual event of her mother’s death. Her eyes were continually blinded by tears, but she ha d no time to give way to regular crying. The father and brother depended upon her; while they were giving way to grief, she must be working, planning, considering† (230). This quote depicts Margaret acting as backbone for the family. She has allowed her family members to look to her for stability, which is extremely rare in a time where women were viewed as delicate. The most memorable demonstration of Margaret’s character is in the event of the strike when she comes outside of the Thornton household and steps in front of John Thornton.Margaret puts herself in a spot of grave danger in between Mr. Thornton and the strikers who are described as beastly, animalistic creatures who have lost all traces of their previous humanity. The stepping in front of Mr. Thornton symbolizes the crossing of his masculinity. In essence she is stating herself more masculine than Thornton by doing so. The irony of this situation is as she is preceding his masculinity, the very thing she ban ks on not getting hurt is gender. She thinks that as a woman she will not be subjected to any violence delivered by man.Margaret’s attitude toward her mother’s death and her approach to confronting the strikers shows her strong and brave character. Such character that contradicts the social norms of gender roles is attributed to the female protagonist in attempts to convey the author’s values of female empowerment. The fact that Mr. Thornton is not oppressive toward women instead attracted to Margaret’s challenging nature marks Gaskell’s attempt at getting readers to believe that women can be just as strong as their male complements despite what society says.

Participative Leadership

Question Participative leadership style is always more effective than autocratic/directive leadership styles. Discuss. Executive Summary To say there has been an immense amount of research undertaken on the topic of leadership would be an understatement. The theoretical and empirical research on leadership in the workplace covers a diverse range of theory and there has been much critique and discussion of the theories to date. This paper review will discuss the path-goal leadership theory and it’s application in an organisational setting. The first part of the report will look at the evolution of this theory and the underpinning elements of each leadership style. The second part will compare participative and directive leadership styles using examples to illustrate the relevant use of each style and necessity for leaders to be able to use both or a combination of the two. Table of Contents Introduction p. 4 Path-Goal Leadership Theoryp. 4 Participative vs. Directive Leadershipp. 6 Practical Implicationsp. 8 Conclusion p. 9 Reference Listp. 10 Introduction For decades the study of leadership has been a focus in management, psychology and organisational behaviour with â€Å"over 35,000 research papers, articles and books written† on the topic in an attempt to define leadership and understand which style best drives effective leadership (Killian 2007). In 1974 Stogdill said, â€Å"there are almost as many definitions of leadership as there are persons who have tried to define the concept† (Yukl 1989, p. 251). A statement that is relatively true even 37 years on with many approaches to leadership still emerging and continued debate and discussion around the existing theories. A modern and fairly recent definition of leadership explains it as â€Å"influencing, motivating and enabling others to contribute toward the effectiveness and success of the organisations of which they are members† – a definition agreed upon by fifty four leadership experts from thirty eight countries (McShane, Olekalns & Travaglione 2010). With so much research dedicated to the subject of leadership there are a vast array of theories and associated leadership styles including but not limited to: * Trait Theories * Contingency Theories * Situational Theories Behavioural Theories * Transformational Theories Each has their own unique approach and perspectives on what constitutes an effective leader however for the purpose of this report the focus will be on the path-goal theory and the leadership styles it encompasses. Path-Goal Leadership Theory The path-goal approach to leadership is one of several contingency theories. The contingency perspective is built upon the not ion that leaders choose their style to suit the situation and this contemporary model has had much noteworthy critique and testing over the years. Defined as an â€Å"expectancy theory of motivation that relates several leadership styles to specific employee and situational contingencies† ((McShane, Olekalns & Travaglione 2010, p461), the theory suggests that a leader can have an influence on the performance, satisfaction and motivation of their subordinates which can be applied through all levels of an organisation. Evans and House first initiated support for the path-goal theory of leadership in the early 1970s following inconsistencies in the results of earlier research. A study by Evans (1970) of two organisations demonstrated a link between the behavior of leaders and the impact on the behavior and goal attainment of subordinates. In 1971 House presented a path-goal theory of leadership effectiveness derived from a path-goal theory of motivation, which posed a theory on the effects of leader behavior on subordinate satisfaction, motivation and performance. The study reconciled conflicting research that had previously been conducted on the topic and support of the hypothesis tested lead to further research and development of this theory. As illustrated below ((McShane, Olekalns & Travaglione 2010, p463) the performance and satisfaction outcome of subordinates is a result of three components – leader behavior, environmental factors and subordinate contingencies. According to the theory are there four clearly defined styles of leader behaviour (House & Mitchell 1974, House 1996): 1. Directive – the leader gives instructions about what, how & when tasks need to be completed and how performance will be measured. Ideal for ambiguous or non-routine tasks. 2. Supportive – leaders provide psychological and social support and go out of their way to make work pleasant for employees. Used in stressful situations that may be unsatisfying or frustrating. 3. Participative – the leader shares decision making with the team and encourages and takes their opinions and suggestions into account when making a decision. When team members are autonomous, need control and clarity and are heavily involved in their work this style can be used. 4. Achievement Oriented – behavior that is directed towards encouraging employees to achieve their peak performance through challenging goals. Ideal in situations where employees are highly motivated and driven to succeed. The path-goal model is based on the assumption that each leadership style will be effective in different situations depending on the two variables outlined above – employee contingencies and environmental contingencies. A leader needs to be able to adapt to different situations by selecting the style that suits employee needs or using a combination. Not all leaders will naturally exhibit all four leadership styles above or be comfortable using them but under this model a leader would need to have the ability to demonstrate all posing a potential development needs in some situations. Participative vs. Directive Leadership The question posed of whether participative leadership is always more effective than participative leadership cannot be completely justified under the path-goal leadership model as the premise of this approach is that the leadership style applied is dependent upon the environmental and employee variables. While there is a widely shared belief amongst a lot of the literature that participative leadership has greater advantages over a directive approach, there are arguments for both and each has its potential strengths and weaknesses. In this next section the role and outcomes of a participative leader will be compared to that of a directive (or autocratic) leader using organisational examples to illustrate their uses. Participative leadership will not work if subordinates do not have the necessary skills and experience to enable them to contribute to decision-making or make effective decisions themselves and the systems and procedures do not exist within the organisational environment as in the case of the Allied Machinery Company (Muczyk and Reimann 1987). In this example the General Manager’s approach of using a participative or democratic leadership style, which had worked for him, previously was not appropriate in his new role as the subordinates were not used to operating this way and expected guidance and follow-up from their leader. If more of a directive approach had of been taken and subordinates given specific guidelines, had expectations setout and rules or procedures explained then one would expect the outcome to have been significantly different. The key points illustrated here are how important it is for a leader to assess the situational variables (employee and environmental) before choosing their leadership style and secondly the necessity for a leader to be able to flex between styles rather than relying only on their natural or preferred style. A potential challenge to this could be how comfortable managers are with using an alternate style. For example, one study reported that Australian managers dislike using a directive style and some would go to considerable lengths to avoid doing so (Avery & Ryan 2002). The path-goal theory suggests that at times a leader may need to use a combination of leadership styles. In an interesting study on directive versus participative leadership in schools (Somech 2005) explores the effect of each style on school staff and makes several conclusions. A directive style can assist staff to challenge themselves and achieve high performance while a participative approach challenges through the sharing of knowledge however used together by leaders rather than as mutually exclusive styles they achieved a complementary result in terms of school effectiveness. Greiner (1973) also illustrates this point with an example of executives incorporating a few directive actions into their participative style to keep high performance goals in front of their teams. These are both great examples of using a combined approach of participative and directive leadership to maximise the result. Another area worthy of consideration in discussion of these two styles is the influence that demographics such as age, status, length of employment, gender and culture can have on choosing the most appropriate style. Sauer (2011) notes that for a new leader this is no correct style of leadership. In terms of leader status, the study suggests that when low status leaders use directive leadership or high status leaders use participative? leadership, the leaders are perceived as more self-confident and more effective. When comparing leadership across cultures it is also noted that participative leadership works better in some cultures rather then others (Den Hartog et al. , 2000). These examples highlights some other situational factors, potentially outside of the norm, that come into play when assessing the most effective style of leadership to pursue. Practical Implications The continued research into path-goal leadership theory and its application in the workplace highlights some reasonable considerations for leaders in engaging and motivating their subordinates. The literature suggests that participative and directive are the dominant styles and a great deal of the research highlights the benefits of a participative approach. What a lot of the research fails to look at is the negative outcomes if a participative approach is used in a situation that requires a directive approach as in the case of Allied Machinery used above. For practical application of the path-goal theory more focus needs to be placed on comparing the variance in outcomes of participative vs. directive leadership in a range of situations with varying employee and environmental. More importantly a combined approach should also be examined in this research. Conclusion There are many definitions of leadership in existence and varying opinions on the most effective theory and subsequent leadership style. The path-goal leadership theory has evolved over time since it was first proposed in the early 1970s and there has been ongoing critique and analysis of its validity, which in comparison to other contingency theories has held relatively strong. The path-goal theory highlights the key components that will impact the outcome – employee contingencies, environmental contingencies and leadership style. A leader needs to adapt their style to the situation and be able to flex between the four styles rather than relying on just one. The question as to whether participative leadership is always more effective than democratic leadership is not validated as this model illustrates the need for both either in isolation or as a combined approach. A participative or democratic approach relies on the team being engaged and motivated and is only effective if followers are willing and able to participate actively in the decision-making process, which is not always the case. There are so many variables that comes into play that neither of these styles can simply be labeled as the right choice for all situations. Reference List Dicksona, M. , Hartog, D. & Mitchelsona, J. 2003, Research on leadership in a cross-cultural context: Making progress, and raising new questions, The Leadership Quarterly, Vol. 14, pp. 729-768. Evans, M. G. 1970, The effects of supervisory behavior on the path-goal relationship, Organisational Behavior and Human Performance Vol. 5, pp. 277-298. Gayle C. & Avery, J. 2002, Applying situational leadership in Australia, Journal of Management Development, Vol. 21 pp. 242–262. Greiner, L. 1973, What managers think of participative leadership, Harvard Business Review, Vol. pp. 111-117. House, R. J. 971, A path-goal theory of leader effectiveness. Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 16, pp. 321-338. House, R. J. & Mitchell, T. R. 1974, Path-goal theory of leadership, Journal of Contemporary Business, Vol. 3, pp. 81-97. House, R. J. 1996, Path-goal theory of leadership: Lessons, legacy, and a reformulated theory, The Leadership Quarterly, Vol. 7, pp. 323-352. Huang, X. , Iun, J. , L iu, A. & Gong, Y. 2010, Does participative leadership enhance work performance by inducing empowerment or trust? The differential effects on managerial and non-managerial subordinates, Journal of Organizational Behavior, Vol. 1, pp. 122-143. Killian, S. 2007, The ABC of Effective Leadership A Practical Overview of Evidence Based Leadership Theory, Australian Leadership Development Centre, viewed 7 September 2011 http://www. leadershipdevelopment. edu. au/SiteMedia/w3svc674/Uploads/Documents/Effective%20Leadership%20An%20Overview%20of%20Leadership%20Theory. pdf Lewin, K. Liippit, R. and White, R. K. 1939, Patterns of aggressive behavior in experimentally created social climates, Journal of Social Psychology, Vol. 10, pp. 271-301. Muczyk, J. & Reimann, B. 987, The Case for Directive Leadership, The Academy of Management Executive. Vol. 1, pp. 301-311. Sauer, S. J. 2011, Taking the Reins: The Effects of New Leader Status and Leadership Style on? Team Performance, Journal of Applied Psy chology, Vol. 96, pp. 574-87. Smech, A. 2005, Directive Versus Participative Leadership: Two Complementary Approaches to Managing School Effectiveness. Educational Administration Quarterly 2005, Vol. 41, pp. 777-800. Yukl, G. 1989, Managerial Leadership: A Review of Theory and Research, Journal of Management, Vol. 15, pp. 251-289.

Safe Injection Sites A Controversial Issue - 1797 Words

Safe injection sites are a controversial issue in Canada, and have been for a long time. As society grows more and more comfortable with the idea of legalizing certain drugs, the attitude towards these safe injection sites changes. This change affects laws, politics, and society in general and is a legal and moral issue. Insite, the first safe injection site in North America, opened in 2003 in Vancouver, British Columbia to a mass of controversy that induced legislative, legal, and moral change worthy of observation and investigation. This paper will first introduce the concept of safe injection sites as well as an explanation of the harm principle in which these sites operate under, then introduce Insite, the first safe injection site opened in North America, along with appropriate statistical evidence that proves its effectiveness, followed by the issues brought up by opponents of these sites will be discussed as well as the landmark Supreme Court case that allowed for their contin ued existence, and finally an overview of the current legislation that threatens it. Safe injection sites are places where chronic users of drugs such as morphine, cocaine, and heroin can go to inject drugs in a safe and sanitary environment. The site itself does not supply the drugs, but offers addiction and mental health treatment, first aid in case of overdose or injury, and sanitary means to inject drugs safely. These sites apply what is known as the harm reduction model. 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